African intelligence studies literature is an important and growing body of work that should be studied by scholars throughout the world. Though Africa appears to be establishing intelligence studies programs recently compared to Europe and North America, this should not imply African intelligence studies lacks rigor, capability and insight. For decades, scholarship about Africa has repeatedly highlighted and acknowledged the complexity and advances in Africa, perhaps notably with Basil Davidson’s (1914–2010) landmark The African Genius. Similarly, this article argues for understanding African intelligence studies literature on its own terms and objectives. While intelligence studies education in Africa is not without deficiencies, it has proved useful and is important to study its contributions. [1] Indeed, there are important issues and lessons learned in the existing African intelligence literature that make useful additions to the international scholarship.
There is no reason to believe African intelligence officers lack skills, experience and knowledge of their craft. With over fifty countries and hundreds of intelligence and security services throughout the continent, the services consistently counter attacks and national security threats. No doubt, these institutions face challenges in the professionalisation of intelligence which have been noted by scholars, such as Dalene Duvenage. [2] Additionally, while some African intelligence officers engage in human rights abuses to support dictatorial governments, others work daily in challenging conditions to thwart espionage, sabotage, terrorism and other national security threats that pose direct threats to life and liberty in African societies. This article seeks to understand African intelligence by looking at published works from African intelligence officers of various positions and ranks. To do this, the article will use Nigeria as a case study. This approach allows the reader to better understand the intelligence studies literature in one country rather than make generalizations about a region or all of Africa.
Drawing from published books by Nigerian intelligence officers, this article demonstrates the insightfulness of African intelligence professionals who describe capabilities, strategic planning and frameworks. [3] Though the literature maybe challenging for scholars in Europe and North America to obtain due to the localized distribution networks of the books, there is no lack of informative writing from Nigerian intelligence officers. There are political and civil liberties restrictions in Nigeria, as Freedom House has assessed, which impacts how and what authors write about. [4] Nonetheless, these books take approaches and make conclusions that contribute to the international intelligence studies scholarship.
Intelligence literature in Nigeria
Nigeria’s National Institute for Security Studies (NISS), located in the capital, Abuja, is one of the more notable organizations in the country that publishes intelligence studies scholarship. It was founded in 1999 as a training school before becoming the Institute for Security Studies in 2008. By 2019, it became known as the NISS and describes itself as the ‘foremost security training institute in Nigeria’ which ‘prepares high-level security intelligence professionals, as well as senior level managers for critical roles in the sustenance of national security.’ [5] Beyond offering classes for security professional leaders, the NISS publishes a journal and books devoted to intelligence and security studies topics. Currently, the institute is headed by Afakriya Gadzama, a former head of Nigeria’s internal intelligence service, the Department of State Services (DSS) from 2007 to 2010.
The NISS is not the only educational Nigerian institution devoted to intelligence and security. For example, Nigeria’s National Defence Academy established the Department of Intelligence and Security Science in 2019 with the mission ‘to prepare students for the analytic, operational, research, and investigative intelligence process within the federal government.’ [6] Such programs aim to give intelligence and security officers a foundation for executing their work with elements of critical thinking, history, law, ethics and security knowledge.
This article draws from books published by the NISS as well as other publishers. These books describe the capabilities, frameworks and approaches taken by Nigerian intelligence officers, reflecting the country’s intelligence culture. In doing so, this article demonstrates elements of professionalism, adaptability and reform throughout different periods of Nigerian intelligence.
Intelligence Literature by working-level officers
Intelligence officers in Nigeria publish different types of books for varying purposes ranging from memoir to a compilation of essays about their craft for other professionals. Farida Waziri’s 2019 memoir, One Step Ahead, details her life, including work in the Special Branch (which later became the National Security Organization then the DSS) from training to intelligence collection. [7] She described her tasks as attending public meetings to write reports about ‘inciting statements and voices critical of the government’ (p. 28). Waziri, who later served as chair of Nigeria’s Economic and Financial Crimes Commission from 2008 to 2011, also notes how ‘credible intelligence is expensive’ and how intelligence collection during the 1970s was ‘professionally executed’ (p. 29).
Taking a different approach, Stan Olu Azodoh’s 2023 monograph about information and communication technology security issues in Nigeria draws from his work as an intelligence practitioner in DSS. [8] He notes that Nigeria has made only limited investment in technology, and the country is susceptible to cyber threats, including online security breaches. He highlights the importance of encryption and describes Nigeria’s use of very-small-aperture terminals (VSAT) as an improvement in the country’s information security. He notes the DSS is one agency that uses it because VSAT ‘is excellent security against unauthorized access’ and its transmissions ‘can be scrambled,’ making access ‘virtually impossible without authorization’ (p. 83).
Likewise, retired DSS officer Raymond Nkemdirim’s 2022 collection of essays on intelligence highlights Nigeria-specific issues. [9] As far as intelligence advancements, he explains Nigeria’s ‘massive acquisition of state-of-the-art technical intelligence (TECHINT) equipment’ has ‘ensured that’ Boko Haram has been ‘infiltrated’ (p. 31). He also discusses Nigeria’s employment of psychological operations (PSYOPS), which ‘proved an effective tool in de-radicalisation and perception management operations of Nigeria’s intelligence services’ (p. 192).
Intelligence literature by leaders
The NISS’ books are a useful forum for current and former Nigerian intelligence leaders to discuss ongoing issues and past events. Some of the books are compiled from papers written during NISS courses and the resulting publications are used to educate future Nigerian intelligence leaders. Of note, in 2022 the NISS published the anthology, Manning The Gates, which was edited by Adegboyega A. Karim and Amadu Sesay and written to honour Yusuf Magaji Bichi, head of the DSS from 2018 to 2024. [10] One author, Brown Ekwoaba–former DSS head of training and staff development–details the significance of training and retraining by looking at training requirements of the service and highlighting different training frameworks and capabilities taught in hundreds of seminars, workshops and courses for over 4,000 intelligence officers.
Whereas, Inemesit Emmanuel–former DSS director of intelligence–describes the need to shift ways of thinking about intelligence in light of the information revolution and concludes that the skillsets used ‘for counter-intelligence operations two decades ago have become obsolete’ (p. 394). He further notes the importance of academic education for intelligence assessments, having analysts who are ‘voracious readers of books on all subjects under the sun’ and having a special unit to utilise artificial intelligence in Nigeria’s intelligence community (p. 395). As for intelligence operations, G.B. Eteng–former DSS director of operations–notes the importance of utilising emerging technology and describes how the security services must broadly consider future threats shaped by decreased national revenue, increased unemployment and diminished agricultural output.
Similarly, the NISS published The Nigerian Economy and National Security, edited by Augustine Ikelegbe, Abdulwahab Muhammad-Wali and Adegboyega A. Karim, in 2015 and re-released in 2022. [11] A chapter by Yusuf Magaji Bichi provides strategies for countering national security challenges with attention to identifying, understanding particular motivations of nefarious actors and combating the threats. He notes, for example, the importance of intelligence-led operations that employ the requisite methods and technologies to gain insight into an actors’ intentions and plans. Likewise, Inemesit Emmanuel describes how intelligence is a ‘major input’ in policy formulation and highlights the different ways the DSS informs policymakers through daily reports, national threat outlooks, position papers, opinion polling and numerous other methods (p. 267).
Whereas, the NISS’ predecessor organisation published Security Sector Synergy in Nigeria, edited by Linus N. Asiegbu and Adegboyega A. Karim, in 2013 and was reprinted in 2022. [12] The anthology was the outgrowth of papers presented by senior intelligence leaders during the institute’s Executive Intelligence Management Course. E.E Ita–then Director-General of the DSS–writes about the need for the security sector to evolve and adapt, calling for reforms that include developing a national security framework, increasing civil society participation in security sector reform and having good governance. Likewise, Folashade Adekaiyaoja, then DSS assistant director of the training directorate, discusses the importance of reform and innovation, but notes how ‘communication’ is key to change because ‘success is unlikely to be attained if the reforms are not shaped and embraced by all stakeholders’ (p. 54).
In a 2023 anthology published by NISS titled Strategic Leadership and National Security in Nigeria, Harry Erin–commander of the Economic and Financial Crimes Commission–explains that terrorist groups in Nigeria, like Boko Haram, received financial support from internal and external sources and the Nigerian government developed regulatory laws to counter this, but a multitude of factors including slow prosecutions stymied efforts. [13] Also looking at capacity building, Kehinde Ayoola–DSS’ director of technical services–calls for integrating artificial intelligence into the Nigeria’s National Security Strategy and utilising it for surveillance and analysis among other issues. Additionally, Alfred Tussy Obajemu–Defence Intelligence Agency deputy director–discusses military intelligence, describing specific intelligence cells to support operations and Nigeria’s defence attaché system that ‘is involved in strategic intelligence collections’ (p. 542).
Taking a different approach, Contemporary Security Challenges in Nigeria –a 2021 NISS anthology edited by Adegboyega Adebayo Karim, Amadu Sesay and Saleh Dauda–explores Nigeria-specific challenges by offering security assessments and recommendations. [14] The book was written in honour of Afakirya Aduwa Gadzama, who served as Director-General of the DSS from 2007 to 2010 and worked in the agency for thirty-five years. Kabiru Sani–former DSS director of intelligence–describes how the DSS counters threats through building criminal profiles in databases to track security concerns, provides intelligence directly to consumers, neutralises subversive organisations and has liaison programmes with other agencies. Similarly, Abdullai Abba Adams–the director of State Director of Security in Gombe–describes Nigeria’s response to Boko Haram with kinetic and non-kinetic responses, which includes reducing the risk of radicalisation and mitigating the risk of terrorist attacks. Additionally, Inemesit Emmanuel discusses the importance of intelligence coordination with other African countries and suggests it can be improved with better planning, capacity and demarcation of responsibilities and roles.
Conclusion
This article highlighted African intelligence professionals discussing their craft. In particular, it reviewed Nigerian intelligence officers’ perspectives by looking at their descriptions about their services, work, challenges and capabilities. In doing so, it explained how Nigerian officers describe professionalism, adaptation and reform to briefly shed light on Nigerian intelligence on its own terms. One important issue that was not analysed here, but needs noted is the human rights abuses committed that have been reported by non-government organisations like Amnesty International. There is a dearth of information about abuses in the current literature from Nigeria by security service professionals, which is an important topic that needs to be written about and addressed. Nonetheless, this article has demonstrated how intelligence studies is an emerging academic field in Africa and that international scholars can learn from the emerging publicly available literature. Deeper collaboration with and incorporation of African intelligence scholars in North American and European intelligence studies literature will benefit the international academic community.
Ryan Shaffer
Co-Editor
Global Change, Peace and Security
United States
[1] Awwal Isa, Engaging the Academy to Improve Professionalism in Nigeria’s Intelligence Community, PhD dissertation (University of Buckingham, 2014), 100.
[2] Dalene Duvenage, ‘The Professionalisation of Intelligence in Africa,’ in Contemporary Intelligence in Africa ed. Tshepo Gwatiwa (New York: Routledge, 2024), 187–205.
[3] For a review article on Nigerian intelligence-related books published by the NISS, see: Ryan Shaffer, ‘Nigerian perspectives on intelligence and national security,’ Intelligence and National Security 40, no. 04 (2025): 782–791. For examples of the scholarship in general, see: Tshepo Gwatiwa ed., Contemporary Intelligence in Africa (New York: Routledge, 2024); Ryan Shaffer ed., African Intelligence Services: Early Postcolonial and Contemporary Challenges (Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield, 2021); Ryan Shaffer ed., The Handbook of African Intelligence Cultures (Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield, 2023).
[4] ‘Nigeria,’ Freedom House, 2025. https://freedomhouse.org/country/nigeria
[5] ‘Nigeria’s Foremost Security Institute,’ National Institute for Security Studies, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220219025503/https://nissnigeria.gov.ng/about
[6] ‘Department of Intelligence and Security Science,’ Nigerian Defence Academy, 2025. https://nda.edu.ng/department-of-intelligence-and-security-science/
[7] Farida Waziri, One Step Ahead: Life as a Spy, Detective and Anti-Graft Czar (Burlington, NJ: Webcza, 2019).
[8] S.O. Azodoh, Emerging Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Threats and Nigeria’s National Security: A Practitioner’s Perspective (N.p.: NIRPRI, 2023), xvi.
[9] Raymond Nkemdirim, Nigerian Security Challenges: A Compendium of Selected Intelligence Essays (N.p.: Floris Global Multiventures Ltd, 2022).
[10] Adegboyega A. Karim and Amadu Sesay eds., Manning The Gates: Essays in Honour of Yusuf Magaji Bichi (Abuja: National Institute for Security Studies, 2022).
[11] Augustine Ikelegbe, Abdulwahab Muhammad-Wali and Adegboyega A. Karim eds., The Nigerian Economy and National Security: Challenges and Prospects for Sustainable Security and Development (Abuja: National Institute for Security Studies, 2015, 2022 reprint).
[12] Linus N. Asiegbu and Adegboyega A. Karim eds., Security Sector Synergy in Nigeria (Abuja: Institute for Security Studies, 2013, 2022 reprint).
[13] Adegboyega A. Karim and Mohammed B. Umar eds., Strategic Leadership and National Security in Nigeria: Essays in Honour of A.S. Adeleke (Abuja: National Institute for Security Studies, 2023), 301.
[14] Adegboyega Adebayo Karim, Amadu Sesay and Saleh Dauda eds., Contemporary Security Challenges in Nigeria: Perspective on Peace Stability and Sustainable Development: Essays in Honour of Afakirya Aduwa Gadzama (Abuja: National Institute for Security Studies, 2021). Back to Table of Contents
